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An Introduction to the History of Plastics Bakelite The limitations of celluloid led to the next major advance, known as "phenolic" or "phenol-formaldehyde" plastics. A chemist named Leo Hendrik Baekelund, a Belgian-born American living in New York state, was searching for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. Baekelund found that mixtures of phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass when mixed together and heated, and the mass became extremely hard if allowed to cool and dry. He continued his investigations and found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create "composite" materials with different properties. Most of these compositions were strong and fire-resistant. The only problem was that the material tended to foam during synthesis, and the resulting product was of unacceptable quality. Baekelund built pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product. He publicly announced his discovery in 1909, naming it "bakelite." It was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, finally coming into widespread use in consumer goods in the 1920s. Bakelite was the first true plastic. It was a purely synthetic material, not based on any material or even molecule found in nature. It was also the first "thermoset" plastic. Conventional "thermoplastics" can be molded and then melted again, but thermoset plastics form bonds between polymer strands when "cured," creating a tangled matrix that cannot be undone without destroying the plastic. Thermoplastics are tough and temperature resistant. Bakelite was cheap, strong, and durable. It was molded into thousands of forms, such as radios, telephones, clocks, jewelry, buttons, lamps, and, of course, billiard balls. Phenolic plastics are still in widespread use. For example, electronic circuit boards are made of sheets of paper or cloth impregnated with phenolic resin. Many bakelite items are now collectors items. Here are a few tips for bakelite collectors. There are some simple ways to tell if an item is truly made of bakelite. The first is smell. Rub the item briskly with your fingers until it is warm. You should get a formaldehyde or carbolic acid smell. Once you are familiar with the smell, it is fairly recognizable. Another method calls for placing "Scrubbing Bubbles" bathroom cleaner on a q-tip and touching it to the bakelite - the q tip should turn yellow. And, yes, bakelite colors do change as they age. Some interesting bakelite sites: The Bakelite Museum, Columbia Encyclopedia Plastic Polymers | Celluloid & Rayon | Bakelite | Polystyrene & PVC | Nylon Synthetic Rubber | A Plastics Explosion | Plastic Recycling | Packaging Products

Mention vintage scarves and the name "Vera" immediately comes to mind. The designer behind the name was Vera Neumann, an artist turned textile designer. Vera began designing textiles in 1946 after she and her husband, George Neumann founded Printex along with partner Werner Hamm. The "vera" trademark was first used in 1947. In 1948, the business had out-grown the loft and was moved from Manhattan to Ossining, NY. The Neumans bought an old mansion which was converted into her studio and factory. By the 1950s business had grown to the point where Vera employed a team of designers. These designers were responsible for taking the original design which was done by Vera herself in the form of a 36" scarf, and translating it into other products. As many as 500-600 different designs a year were developed by the team, many of which were printed in the factory right below them. Geometrics, especially dots, were very popular, as were bold florals. Many prints were done in color and also in black and white. All were copyrighted. The scarves were actually printed in Japan. Vera left nothing to chance, making a sample of each scarf in the New York factory, and sending it along with the dye formulas to the factory in Japan In the 1960s a clothing line was added to the scarves and household linens. Blouses and dresses were made from the Vera textile designs. These garments are quite interesting, as the fabric was engineered, or designed with the idea of the finished garment in mind. The starting place for each design was always the 36" scarf. The earliest Vera clothing was made with either 100% cotton or 100% silk. Later, items were made from nylon and polyester. In 1974, Perry Ellis went to work for Vera as a merchandise manager. Vera sold the Vera Companies to Manhattan Industries, one of the clothing manufacturing giants. She continued on as the designer at the company Vera worked nearly up to her death in 1993. Vera scarves continued to be made after her death, and today the trademark is owned by The Vera Company of Atlanta, GA.

Gemstone Information Gemstone jewelry is beautiful and if well cared for can last centuries. Here are some ways to get the best gemstone jewelry for your money. Gemstone Jewelry Pricing Gemstone price is determined by: size, cut, quality (color/clarity/treatments), and type. Here are some questions to ask about gemstone quality: Questions on Gemstone Size How big is the actual gemstone? Will the gemstone be too big or too small for the intended setting? Questions on a Gems Cut What type of gemstone cut? A well dimensioned "Brilliant" cut sparkles the most. How regular is the gemstones cut? What are the dimensions of a cut? The deeper (total depth) the gems cut, the more it will sparkle. Questions on Gems Overall Quality Are the gems damaged? Are there noticable chips, inclusions, or marks? Has the gemstone been treated? (See treatments listed below) Is the gem natural or synthetic? Questions on Gemstone Color Is the gemstones color even? How good is the gems color? (Is it vibrant?) If you are buying the gemstones for earrings or cufflinks, are the gem stones well matched? Gemstone Treatments Jewelry dealers may treat gemstones in hopes of gettng a higer price. The savvy buyer asks lots of questions and hopefully tests the results. Here are some gemstone treatments to look for: Coatings: Jasper is often dipped in petroleum products to bring out color and to seal it. Emerald is oiled; turquoise is waxed. Dye: This is the most common treatment used. On clear gemstones, dye may be visible in cracks that are darker than the rest of the stone. Sometimes dye appears as a residue that rubs off or white patches. Lapis and Rose Quartz are commonly dyed. Amethyst and Citrine are often dyed. Black Onyx is permanently dyed in normal processing. Fake Gem Stones: Some dealers will try passing off fake gems instead of natural ones. There are fake stones for most gemstones on the market. Always ask what gemstone something is if you are not certain. Honest dealers will tell you. If a gemstone looks too perfect it may be fake, irradiated or dyed. I avoid laboratory made products also known as synthetics (unless getting a really good discount). Gemstone Swap: When a deal seems too good to be true, the dealer may be substitutiong one gemstone for another. For example, dyed Howlite is often substituted for Lavendar Jade. Heat Treatment: Amethyst, Aquamarine, Ruby, Tanzanite and Topaz are often heated at high temperatures to enhance color. Irradiation: It is common to irradiate Aquamarine, London Blue Topaz, Emerald, and Diamond as well as other gem stones. This treatment brings out color and removes imperfections. Many dealers know if the gemstones they are selling have been irradiated. Honest ones will tell you if they are aware of the treatment. Tips on buying gemstone beads Look for the best quality gemstone (if buying real gemstones) Verify that the cracks in a gemstone bead are not darker than the bead itself (if so, the bead is dyed) If the beads are being sold in a 16" strand -- I make sure it is 16" -- not 14" or 15" if possible. Make sure beads are not cracked or chipped by the holes as this tears the thread Evenly shaped beads (as appropriate) Good color (so can create harmonious necklaces and matching earrings) Good sized holes (so can use a stronger thread)

The Natural Gemstones include minerals used as faceting, lapidary, or carving rough, and specimen. Natural gemstones also include organic materials such as amber, coral, fossil, ivory, mother of pearl, natural and cultured freshwater pearls, and natural saltwater pearls Synthetic Gemstones produced in the United States include alexandrite, coral, diamond, emerald, garnet, lapis lazuli, quartz, ruby, sapphire, spinel, and turquoise. Laboratory grown simulants have an appearance similar to that of a natural gemstone but have different optical, physical, and chemical properties. Laboratory grown synthetic gemstones have essentially the same appearance, optical, physical, and chemical properties as the natural material that they represent. The Gemstone Simulants produced in the United States include coral, cubic zirconia, lapis lazuli, malachite, and turquoise. Additionally, certain colors of synthetic sapphire and spinel, used to represent other gemstones, would be classed as simulants. Colored and colorless varieties of cubic zirconia are the major simulants produced.

Ammolite Gemstone quality is being communicated via a letter grade system, from best to least best: AA; A+; A; and A-. However, this system is not yet standardized and some vendors may use their own systems. The grade and therefore the value of an ammolite gemstone is determined by the following criteria: The number of primary colors A large array of color is displayed in ammolite, including all the spectral colors found in nature. Red and green are far more common than blue or purple due to the latter's fragility (see properties). There are also certain hues, like crimson or violet or gold, which are derived from a combination of the primary colors, that are the rarest and in highest demand. The most valuable grades have roughly equal portions of three or more primary colors or 1–2 bright and even colors, with the lowest grades having one comparatively dull color predominant. The way the colors play (chromatic shift and rotational range) Chromatic shift is how the colors vary with the angle of viewing and the angle of light striking the gemstone; in higher grades this variation is almost prismatic in its scope, while lower grades show very little variation. Rotational range is how far the specimen can be turned while maintaining its play of color; the best rotate 360 degrees uncompromised, while lesser stones may exhibit highly directional colors that are only visible within a narrow rotational range, down to 90° or less. Intermediate grades have ranges of 240–180°. Brightness of colors (iridescence) The brightness of colors and their iridescence is essentially dependent on how well-preserved the nacreous shell is, and how fine and orderly the layers of aragonite are. The quality of the polish is also a factor. The "dragon skin" cracking usually hinders its value; the most prized ammolite is the sheet type (see formation) and has broad, uninterrupted swathes of color similar to the "broad flash" category of opal. The matrix is not visible in finer grades, and there should be no foreign minerals breaking up or diminishing the iridescence. The thickness of the ammolite layer is also an important factor: after polishing, the ammolite is only 0.1–0.3 millimeters thick. The rarest and most valuable are thick enough to stand alone, with only a thin portion of its original matrix (not exceeding 1.5 mm); but the vast majority require some sort of supportive backing. Other treatments are also commonly undertaken; all other factors being equal, the less treatment an ammolite gem has received, the more valuable it is. Calibrated stones—that is, stones fashioned into standard dimensions that will fit most jewelry settings—may also command a higher price. Ammolite is considered the rarest organic gem material. It is soft and delicate, most often requiring special processing techniques known only to a few experts specializing in this commercial industry. In its rough state, ammolite is sold for USD $30 to 65 per carat (150 to 325 $/g). [edit] Treatments Although fully mineralized and containing no water—and therefore not subject to dehydration and subsequent crazing as seen in opal—ammolite is often damaged due to environmental exposure. The thin, delicate sheets in which ammolite occurs are also problematic; for these reasons, most material is impregnated with a clear epoxy or other synthetic resin to stabilize the flake-prone ammolite prior to cutting. Although the tessellated cracking cannot be repaired, the epoxy prevents further flaking and helps protect the relatively soft surface from scratching. The impregnation process was developed over a number of years by Korite International in partnership with the Alberta Research Council. Impregnated and epoxy-coated ammolite first entered the market in 1989 and the treatment significantly increased the availability of the gem. Because the ammolite layer is usually mere fractions of a millimeter in thickness, most ammolite gems are in fact composite stones: these usually take the form of two-part doublets, with the ammolite layer adhered to a dark backing material. This is usually the matrix or mother rock from which the ammolite was quarried; black onyx or glass could also be used as backing. In composites where the ammolite layer is exceptionally thin, a third component is used: this constitutes a triplet, with a durable and transparent convex topping piece. This cap may be either synthetic spinel, synthetic corundum, synthetic quartz, or in lower-end productions, glass. The convex cap acts as a lens and has the effect of enhancing the ammolite's iridescent display. The detection of these treated and composite stones is relatively simple via inspection with a loupe; however, certain jewelry setting styles—such as those with closed backs—can complicate things. A triplet can be identified by inspecting the stone in profile; the top of the stone can then be seen to be domed and transparent, with no play of color. If the dome is made of glass, bubbles, swirl marks, and scratches may be present; the harder synthetic materials are optically flawless. Although the vast majority of commercial-grade ammolite has been treated in some way, a small fraction of production requires no treatment other than cutting and polishing. Ideally, any treatments should be disclosed at the time of sale. [edit] Imitations The iridescent flashes (labradorescence) of labradorite may lead to its confusion with ammolite by the unfamiliar, but the overall appearance is unconvincing as an imitation.Ammolite is neither easily nor often imitated; however, a few materials have a passing resemblance that may deceive the unfamiliar. These include: labradorite (also known as spectrolite), an iridescent feldspar also of Canadian origin; and broad-flash black opal. Neither are convincing substitutes, and the latter is actually of greater value than ammolite. Indeed, ammolite is often used as an imitation of black opal. An even less convincing possibility is Slocum stone, a common glass-based imitation of opal. Blues and purples are much more pervasive in labradorite, and in both it and opal the play of color is seen to roll across the stone unlike the comparatively restricted play of color in ammolite. In Slocum stone, the play of color takes the form of tinsel-like patches. The visible structure is also considerably different; in the imitations, the body of the stone is transparent to translucent from certain angles, whereas ammolite is entirely opaque. Gemologically speaking, ammolite can be grouped with the shell-based marbles. This group includes lumachella or "fire marble", a similarly iridescent marble composed of fossilized clam and snail shells. Found in Italy and Austria, lumachella is rarely if ever used in jewelry; rather, it is used as a decorative facing stone or in mosaics. The iridescence of lumachella is fragmentary and not nearly as brilliant as that of ammolite. Despite these differences, lumachella may be considered synonymous with ammolite in some circles. The predominantly blue-green iridescent shell of abalone (or paua; genus Haliotis) is one last possible imitation. Abalone shell is inexpensive and plentiful owing to the commercial mariculture of these gastropods for their meat. The shell's structure is distinctive: sinuous bands of blue, green, and rose iridescence are delineated by dark brown lines of conchiolin, a proteinaceous material that holds the shell together. The luster of abalone shell is silky rather than the near vitreous luster of polished ammolite, and the colors of the two materials do not closely approximate. However, some abalone shell has been dyed and given a transparent cap of synthetic quartz, forming a doublet in the same fashion as ammolite. These doublets are perhaps the most deceptive, and have also been used to imitate opal. Under magnification most abalone doublets will show dye concentrated along certain areas and air bubbles trapped at the shell-quartz interface. [edit] Use in jewelry Fine ammolite jewelry by Korite International. The ammolite gems are triplets, as evidenced by their convex profiles, and are set in 14 karat (58%) gold with diamond accents. Ammolite is best used in pendants, earrings, and brooches due to its fragility.Compared to most other gems, ammolite has a rather scant history of use; it did not begin to garner interest in Western society until the 1970s after entering the market (to a limited degree) in 1969. The Blackfeet tribe know ammolite as iniskim, meaning "buffalo stone", and have long believed it to possess amuletic powers; specifically, the gem is believed to aid in the buffalo hunt, and to draw the buffalo within tracking distance. The Blackfeet also believe ammolite to possess healing powers and incorporate the gem into their medicine bundles for use in ceremonies. In the late 1990s, practitioners of Feng Shui began to promote ammolite as an "influential" stone with what they believe is the power to enhance well-being and detoxify the body by improving its flow of energy or "chi". Named the "Seven Color Prosperity Stone", each color is believed by Feng Shui practitioners to influence the wearer in different and positive ways; a combination of ruby red, emerald green, and amber yellow is most sought after for this purpose, the colors being said to enhance growth, wisdom, and wealth, respectively. Ammolite is usually fashioned into freeform cabochons and mounted in gold, with diamonds as accents. Due to its delicacy, ammolite is best reserved for use in pendants, earrings, and brooches; if used as a ring stone, ammolite should be given a hard protective cap, namely one of synthetic spinel as used in triplets. Whole polished ammonites of appropriately small size may also be mounted in jewelry. Nothing harsher than mild soap and warm water should be used to clean ammolite jewelry; ultrasonic cleaning should be avoided. Japan is the largest market for ammolite; this may be due to its use as an imitation of increasingly scarce black opal, or its aforementioned use in Feng Shui. Secondary markets include Canada, where it is used both by artisans who sell their creations to tourists of Banff National Park and in fine jewelry production; and the Southwest United States, where it is used by Zuni and other Native American craftspeople

Bakelite is a synthetic resin chemically formulated and named after its Belgian inventor, Chemist L.H.Baekeland c.1909. It is pronounced "Bay Ka Lite". Originally it was used for molding items that were previously done of celluloid or hard rubber. One of the original uses was for pool balls. It is collectible in all its forms including jewelry, buttons, radio cases, lamps, dresser sets and many more items. It was used commercially for parts especially in electrical wiring. After bakelite and the introduction of so many other plastics and composition materials it was easy to confuse them all. People began to lump all plastics into one generic term "Bakelite". However, experienced collectors developed ways of testing for bakelite some of which follow. None, however, can take the place of your own experience and careful inspection. Check out books in your local library (see the end of this article) and talk to other collectors. Rub your fingers over the piece. (I grasp the piece with my hand and use my thumb to rub) until it is warm, then smell. It is unforgettable - formaldehyde or a carbolic acid. Familiarize yourself with this odor. Not all pieces will have the same odor intensity, but it will be there. Immerse the piece in hot water (not with rhinestones, please).The smell should be the same. Bakelite has a clunky sound. Hit two plastic pieces together, then two bakelite - check the difference. Feel the difference. Hot needle - be careful though. Heat a needle until it is red hot and then pick an inconspicuous place on the piece to stick the needle in. Wait just a second - not too long! There's that smell again! Also, non thermoplastics will melt and celluloid is extremely flammable so again BE CAREFUL! There is a product on the market called "Scrubbing Bubbles" bathroom cleaner. When put on a q-tip and touched to bakelite, the q-tip will turn yellow. I have only tested this product and have had successful results. No harm has come to the bakelite. Colors - some giveaways are colors and shapes. Look at some of the bakelite books on the market and note the colors. Look at pieces reputable dealers have on display. Bakelite colors do change with age. There are bakelite pieces by Lea Stein .These pieces are collectible and vintage. They are not reproduction and are usually signed - however, I have heard that even this French designer's pieces are being reproduced and signed. Information just received notes that Stein's factory closed in 1980 however 2nd edition pieces were produced in 1991. The newer ones are signed "Agatha" or "Lea Stein Paris" The new edition pin backs are riveted with the 'Lea Stein' signature. Some older editions 'were' heat or glue mounted. There is reproduction bakelite being made. Some say the old is being melted down to make new. One way to tell is by the pin attachment. Prongs embedded into the piece to hold the pin attachment or tiny screws usually indicate an older piece. Glue or pins with 3 or more holes in the pin back 'usually' mean new. Bakelite made by Schultz is newly designed and usually signed by them. These may become collectible in their own right. There are several good bakelite books available - Plastic Jewelry by Lillian Baker/ Bakelite Jewelry by Tony Grasso / Plastic Jewelry by Lyhngerda Kelley and Nancy Schiffer/ European Designer Jewelry - Ginger Moro

REACTIONS OCCURRING IN DECORATION OF VITRIFIED CHINAWARE USING UNDERGLAZE DECALCOMANIA METHOD* A. M. Flannigan1 EXAMPLE :1 Buffalo Pottery, Incorporated Buffalo 10, New York *Listed on the Forty-Seventh Annual Meeting, The American Ceramic Society, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 15, 1945 (Design Division, No. 5). Received July 12, 1946. Copyright 1947 by The American Ceramic Society ABSTRACT Studies were made on the causes of defects in underglaze decalcomania transfer on vitreous hotel chinaware. The best hardening-on firing schedule to eliminate frizzling was as follows: (1) Heat as rapidly as ware will permit to 600°F., (2) at 600° to 800°F., heat at rate not exceeding 40° to 50°F. per hour, and (3) above 800 °F., heat as rapidly as ware will permit. The hardening-on fire can be eliminated by reducing the coating of varnish through control of the viscosity of the varnish in the range of 4.0 to 6.0 (Mac-Michael viscosimeter with No. 30 B & S wire, with cup rotating at 19 r.p.m.). The best results on the tackiness period were obtained in a room at 74 °F. dry bulb and 73% relative humidity.

What are the Differences between Porcelain, China, and Bone China? When with work directly with our clients and explain to them that we are working with Japanese Porcelain, we are often asked "What's the difference in Porcelain and China?" We thought this would be a great place to give you information on just that....So read and enjoy. Porcelain Porcelain is made with kaolin clay. Kaolin is white clay that retains its white color when fired. It is fired at temperatures in excess of 1300 C and is more fully vitrified than stoneware. It is usually covered with a clear glaze, which allows the white body to show. The fired color tends to be more of a "cool" white as opposed to China ware that is usually a warmer white color. Porcelain becomes vitrified during the second firing of a two fire process. The second firing of porcelain typically is hotter than that used for China ware. This finish tends to be harder, but more brittle. This higher firing, hard surface can make decorating more difficult that stoneware or china. The composition of the porcelain clays is usually more malleable than the clays used for china ware. This allows for forming of more intricate and detailed shapes. China ware differs from porcelain not only in color shade, but also in the way it is fired. Where Porcelain becomes vitrified during the second firing (second firing is hotter than first firing), china ware is vitrified during a single firing. With the china, there is only a single firing. Generally, the temperature of this firing of china is a little less that that used for porcelain. the resulting finish is more warm in color than porcelain. This lower firing temperature finish may make china slightly more easy to decorate than porcelain. China ware can be decorated using Under-Glaze, On-Glaze, or In-Glaze techniques. Under-Glaze decorating is most commonly the preferred method of decoration used for china. Bone China is made using a translucent white ceramic clay containing at least 25% bone ash. In England, the percentage of bone ash must be at least 50% for a piece to be considered Bone China. Bone China tends to be slightly translucent in nature and is often used in thin walled pieces, exhibiting a delicate, refined look. http://search.reviews.ebay.com/vitrified

A MUST READ A MUST OWN BOOK Clay: The History and Evolution of Humankind's Relationship with Earth's Most Primal Element Clay: The History and Evolution of Humankind's Relationship with Earth's Most Primal Element Summary The clay beneath our feet is crucial to the computer and space industries, bio-technology, publishing, and a wide range of manufacturing processes. The potter's wheel was the very first machine. With the invention of pottery came cooking and storage vessels, ceramics, the discovery of alcoholic beverages, the oven, clay tablets for the first written communication, irrigation for agriculture, vast trade networks, plumbing, sanitation, and an incredibly durable building material. Much of the Great Wall of China was made of fired clay bricks-a material that can stand for centuries. Now, Suzanne Staubach presents a lively look at how civilization was built on clay-from the first spark plugs to modern semi-conductors, satellite communications to surgical equipment. Clay is a fascinating, colorful look at how, from the primordial ooze to modern miracles, this most humble of substances continues to shape our world in ways limited only by the human imagination. Customer Reviews Average Rating: Clay-tastic! Rating: I really enjoyed this wide-ranging and well-written book about wet, dry and baked mud's service to humanity, mud's more animate cousin. I highly recommend "Clay" for students, potters, ceramic collectors and the wider public. Read about clay's multiple, vital roles in world history Rating: _Clay_ by Suzanne Staubach is an information-packed and interesting look at how one substance - clay - has had far-reaching effects on world history, culture, architecture, cuisine, and technology. Unbelievably abundant, clay (from kleben, German for "to stick to") is alumina, silica, and chemically bonded water. Its popularity through the ages is due to its abundance, plasticity, and its durability after being heated (even sun-baked clay has considerable durability, though unfired clay or raw clay has had a myriad of uses as well). Clay vessels have had a huge role in how humanity has cooked and stored food. With the advent of clay pots, it became possible to make grains and cereals into pottages, tough chunks of meat and tubers into stews, and babies could be weaned earlier thanks to easily-digested mush, which could easily be made in clay pots. Clay vessels made the brewing and consumption of alcohol possible, as pottery enabled the ancient Egyptians to brew ale; the Sumerians date wine; and the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans grape wine. Interestingly, Roman wine was thick and intensely flavored and had to be mixed with water in specially-made clay vessels called kraters before drinking. Clay storage vessels also kept food safe from insects, rodents, and moisture. The first ovens were made of clay, enabling people to bake bread (especially raised bread). The Sumerians developed a large clay beehive oven called a tannur, a type that spread to many other parts of the world, including India, where it came to be called the tandoor. The tandoor is still in use today and tandoori cuisine is popular in many restaurants throughout the world. Also the very first stoves and ranges were made of clay and their remains have been found in ancient Mesopotamian, Chinese, and Roman archaeological sites. Potters became the world's first industrialists, as fired clay was the first synthetic substance ever created and the kiln and the potter's wheel were among the very first machines ever made. Indeed it is possible that the potter's wheel predates wheels used for transportation. Clay of course allowed people to produce plates, cups, and bowls for the dinner table, particularly after glazes were invented (the ancient Egyptians knew of two types of low-fire glazes, lead and alkaline). It was the Chinese who really advanced the art of producing dinnerware, producing the first porcelain in the Sui dynasty (the 500s AD), thought it was the later Ming dynasty (1368-1644) that became truly famous for it, its wonderful blue and white porcelains dishes a popular export commodity. The import of Ming porcelain vastly changed European tastes, leading to by the mid-16th century the need for aristocrats at least to have matching sets of china (as it became known). European potters were not to be outdone; Josiah Spode invented "bone china" or spode ware that thanks to bone ash from cattle had added stability and Josiah Wedgwood pioneered the idea of the assembly line in his potteries and made so much money he was able to finance the researches of his cousin Charles Darwin. Clay was key in the development of writing, as the Sumerians used clay tablets for their cuneiform writing and the world's first printing press with movable type, a Chinese invention of around 1041 BC, used printing blocks made of fired clay. Clay still has an impact on writing today, as clay bonded with graphite makes it more stable, enabling its use in pencils. Clay of course has a huge role as a building material. Clay structural types include wattle-and-daub (a woven structure of sticks or reed is covered with mud), cob (balls or chunks of clay mixed with straw, manure, and sand are stacked into walls and smoothed together), adobe bricks, rammed earth (or pise), and fired or burned brick buildings. Each type of construction is not only ancient but still in use; the famed British buildings of dark beams and contrasting tan or white panels of plaster - "Tudor style" - are wattle-and-daub. The Great Wall of China is actually multiple walls of unfired loess (a type of fine-grained clay), bricks, and burned bricks. Also clay tiles have been used in buildings for thousands of years, dating back to Egyptian times and becoming particularly notable in Islamic architecture in the Middle East and Central Asia, while red terra-cotta roof tiles have become associated with the scenic towns of the Mediterranean, Mexico, and South America. The author showed in chapter after interesting chapter that the uses of clay throughout history have been nearly endless. Clay water pipes and flush toilets have had a huge role in modern sanitation, saving millions of lives from dysentery, typhus, typhoid fever, and cholera. Indeed collectors of Royal Doulton figurines and china might be interested to know that the "Royal" comes from the fact that Sir Henry Doulton was knighted in 1887 for his contributions to public health, as his clay sewer pipes and other sanitary ware greatly improved British life. Clay-lined pit furnaces enabled the invention of smelting, and clay crucibles were vital in producing molds so that metal tools, pots, and weapons could be cast. Clay was used as insulation in the first internal combustion engines, particularly with spark plugs. Clay has had a major role in so many products, including early successful false teeth (they replaced inferior wooden, bone, or horn teeth, all of which absorbed stains and eventually putrefied and stank), smoking pipes (even many of those made of stone, pipestone, were really made of clay, as pipestone was known from upper Missouri River region of southwest Minnesota and was once clay, compressed into stone by the weight of Ice Age glaciers), fertility rituals (the clay figurine the Venus of Dolni Vestonice dates back 30,000 years), cremation urns, hearths to heat the home, and grave goods (including my favorite, the 9,000 strong terra-cotta army of the First Emperor of Qin who died in 210 BC, 7,000 soldiers and 2,000 horses so accurately rendered that even the underside of the shoes of the soldiers have tread). Clay's vital role in modern times Rating: The effect of clay on civilization goes far beyond pottery efforts: it's fostered the rise of world trace, the invention of writing, and the construction of cities. It continues to play a vital role in our modern age, yet few outside of potters give it much attention. CLAY: THE HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF HUMANKIND'S RELATIONSHIP WITH EARTH'S MOST PRIMAL ELEMENT will appeal primarily to any involved in the arts but is also a highly recommended pick for social science and history classes: it provides a lively look on all the elements clay has been essential to fostering, from semiconductors to surgical

See other formats Full text of "Handbook of marks on pottery [and] porcelain" HANDBOOK OF MARKS ON POTTERY AND PORCELAIN MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD TORONTO b HANDBOOK OF MARKS ON POTTERY & PORCELAIN BY W. BURTON, M.A. AUTHOR OF ' A HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF ENGLISH PORCELAIN," ' A HISTORY AND * DESCRIPTION OF ENGLISH EARTHENWARE AND STONEWARE,' ' PORCELAIN, ITS MANUFACTURE,' ETC. AND R. L. HOBSON, B.A. AUTHOR OF THE GUIDE TO, AND CATALOGUES OF, THE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM, ' PORCELAIN ORIENTAL, CONTINENTAL, AND BRITISH,' ETC. ! 9 ?$c\.vtf Caligari, &. painted by Pietro Lei m ? Francesco do' ] !'. Fattori 1 8th cent. I- c. 1520 y^ ~j[ Gubbio Z? c. 1480 t j2- C HM ? G. A. for J)tc74?*^ jfi\4 Giorgio CJi\ Andreoli SB' VCg|>i c. 1540 *%* Probably for M Giorgio IN TERR(A) DVRANTIS In gUbio $. mano d majtro prejtino Prestino fl- 1536-57 u x(/L^ 1532 /r Carocci, W tft^ Fabbri, C D & Co. 053^ 1 9th cent. yK P. Mastro Simono 1562 F>^r\ in Castelo Durale S. 1580 Castel G. S. c. 1530 Durante. F. R. facia fu i Castel Giovanni durat 1 zond Maria, potter -TNXT niaria vro 1508 H. R. in scrolls Ne la botega 1519 Hipollito Rombaldoni Urbania d Sebastiano d Urbania pinse 1647 = Castel d Marforio Durante ITALIAN MAIOLICA URBINO MARK. DESCRIPTION. MARK. DESCRIPTION. A Urbino Urbino j . < . f. CL.CI vrbinQ monograms of Nicola Pellipario, also called ^jjf Orazio Fontana WitoU*. cL&- V Nicola da Urbino, who came to Urbino fl* ? Orazio Fontana JP in 1519 and worked in the botega of his son FATTO IN BOTEGA DE MORATOFONTAXA F Guido Fontana. He died about 1550 TfO Flaminio Fontana 1583

American Limoges Sebring Pottery markAmerican Limoges Triumph MarkAmerican Limoges Triumph Shape - Sebring Pottery - 2 Different Marks This is the mark that is on the 2 bowls American Limoges Triumph - Sebring Pottery - Vermillion Rose. (American) Limoges China Company, Sebring, Ohio - 1900 until 1955. They started out as Sterling China, then the name was changed to Sebring China Company. But this didn't work well because there was already a Sebring China Company. So then the name was changed to Limoges China Company. They also used the name Lincoln China Comapny, by using more than one name a company could give an "exclusive" dealership to more than one customer in the same town. This was a fairly common practice. In the 40's Limoges of France threatened a lawsuit so the American company added "American" to their name. In the 1940's, Salem China Co., Sebring Pottery and American Limoges were all under the same management and all three companies had the same designer. Therefore, there were duplications in patterns and designs. There are quite a few marks for this company. A few words that you might see in a mark are; "peach-blo", "glo-peche", "blue willow", "candle-light", "triumph", "casino", "Jiffy" and a picture of a fat chef, "peasantware", "Royal Maxarine", Made in U.S.A. Sebring, Ohio, Blue Willow, etc. but most all of the marks will have "Limoges", "Made In USA" in it. Manhattan, Diana and Triumph are the names of shapes.

Limoges in America The Limoges porcelain found most often by collectors in antique malls and shops these days largely represents the American version of early Limoges, with Haviland being a prominent name. In fact, status-conscious brides often chose Haviland dinnerware sets as their wedding china in the late Victorian period, according to Gaston. Clever marketers for the Haviland company did research in the U.S. noting the popular designs, colors and types of tableware used in this country, which differed greatly from European preferences. From the mid-19th century to the beginning of the Great Depression, Americans extensively used Haviland Limoges dinnerware on well-set tables. This accounts for so many sets that have been passed down from grandmothers and great-grandmothers to their lucky families. Collecting Limoges Some porcelain collectors solely concentrate on Haviland products and largely ignore other Limoges company names. Others focus on a broader range of Limoges items from a variety of manufacturers. They move away from the quaint dinnerware toward decorative accessories such as vases, trays, and tankards which generally feature more vivid coloration and an abundance of decorative gold trim. When evaluating Limoges, Gaston says looking at the quality of the decoration can often be more important than determining the age. But since both are important, her book identifies numerous factory marks with dates of production as a good starting point for researching Limoges pieces. Not all factories could be listed, however. Some companies were in business for only a short time long ago and the company records no longer exist. Although Limoges pieces have remained popular with collectors for many years, there are few reproductions on the market. So if being victimized by fake antiques generally worries you, consider Limoges as a collecting choice. Once you begin to notice this attractive porcelain with timeless elegance, and pick up a few pieces to enjoy in your own home, you'll have an investment quality collection in no time. Or, consider a beautiful Limoges piece as a gift idea for an antique lover and you really can't go wrong. Many people do not realize that the term "Limoges" does not refer to a specific china manufacturer but that it is actually a region in France where most of the country's potteries are located. In the 19th century manufacturers of Limoges china and other Limoges potteries were owned and operated by French citizens. Facts About Limoges Porcelain - Limoges was produced by a number of factories in France from the late 1700s until around 1930. - When valuing a piece, looking at the quality of the decoration can often be more important than determining the age. - From the mid-19th century to the beginning of the Great Depression, Haviland Limoges dinnerware was extensively marketed in America. - There are currently few Limoges reproductions on the market Limoges History The Limoges porcelain sought by collectors today was actually produced by a number of factories in the Limoges region of France from the late 1700s until around 1930. Production did not cease in 1930, however. This arbitrary cutoff date simply denotes a change in the global economy when the styles of Limoges wares notably changed from very elaborate to more basic in design. At one point in the 1920s as many as 48 companies were producing wares marked Limoges, according to ceramics expert Mary Frank Gaston in The Collector's Encyclopedia of Limoges. These pieces weren't only marked Limoges denoting their origin, however. Many pieces had factory marks and even marks showing who decorated each piece. It's important to understand, however, that the factories operating in the Limoges region produced elaborately molded white wares as their primary output. These undecorated pieces, also known as "blanks," were taken to decorating studios away from the factory or exported without decoration. The blanks exported to American soil often ended up in the hands of eager china painting students, with this being a popular hobby for ladies during the late 1800s. Valuing Limoges Questions to ask when valuing Limoges items: •Is the decor top-notch in terms of quality? •Does it have finely detailed hand painting? •Is it signed by the artist? •Is it decorated with transfers? Naturally, with some of the Limoges pieces being decorated by amateurs, collectors sometimes notice a variation in the quality of the décor. When valuing Limoges pieces, this should be taken into consideration. High quality hand painting holds more value than the work of an unskilled porcelain painter. And if a skillfully decorated piece is signed by the artist, it can be worth even more. Some pieces of Limoges porcelain were decorated with transfers as well. These transfers were decals of sorts that mimicked hand decorating and were often combined with techniques executed by hand. Even a beautifully transferred piece will hold more value than a poorly executed hand-decorated item. Generally, however, collectors prefer hand decorated pieces and will pay premium prices to procure nice examples.